How did comparative education develop in different periods of history?
1- Historical Development of Comparative Education:
The history of comparative education begins with human history. In educational circles, reformers and experts have been comparing their country's system with the systems of other countries in order to improve it. Comparative education is a fully recognized field of study that examines education in a single country or group of countries. Comparative education programs and courses have been introduced in various universities around the world, and articles on the subject are continuously published in various scholarly journals. The field of comparative education is supported by UNESCO and the Ministries of Education of various countries.
2- Different historical periods of comparative education:
Evans has identified the following four historical periods of comparative education:
(i) The Phase of Travellers' Tales:
This period covers the period from prehistoric times to the end of the 18th century. Historically, people have been travelling from one place to another for various reasons such as trade, negotiations, adventure or war and most of them were interested in the education of children and sought to learn about the educational systems in different societies. Early scholars of comparative education described examples of societies they had visited or had heard about. They sought to find similarities and differences in the education system of different nations and their own country. This period is based on the details of the travelogues of travelers. Those who travelled to other countries included traders, adventurers and military conquerors. The purpose of travellers’ stories was to satisfy the need for comparison and in part, to satisfy curiosity. They described the salient features of the educational systems of different countries.
However, their details were sometimes disorganized and exaggerated but their historical importance cannot be denied, despite their comparatively small value.
The following are prominent figures who contributed to the development of comparative education during this period.
(1)- Herodotus
Herodotus (430–425 BC) commented on the wars between Greece and Persia, in which he attempted to compare the cultures of the two nations.
(2)- Xenophon
Xenophon (430-355BC), a Greek, described the education for citizenship in Persia in detail. He compared the structure and objectives of education in Persia and Sparta. He was influenced by the Spartan education system and wanted the Athenians to adopt it.
(3)- Plato
The Greek philosopher Plato compared the aims and structures of the systems of Sparta and Greece. He compared the educational systems of Sparta and Athens in his two books, Laws and the Republic. Like Xenophon, he was influenced by Sparta's education system, which was state-controlled and emphasized military-style discipline and he argued that Athens should emulate Sparta's educational system.
(4)- Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar (102-42 BC) was a Roman king who was also influenced by the Spartan education system. He also commented on the education systems of the Belgic, Aquitanian, and Celtic nations in his writings.
(5)- Cicero
Cicero (106-43 BC) compared education in Greece and Rome, in his book he supported a system of education under government control while opposing a system centered on the family. Cicero said that the Greeks were superior to any other nation in eloquence and learning.
(6)- Tacitus
Tacitus (55-116 AD) compared the education of his era with that of past eras and explained the differences between the two. He also began a discussion titled Past vs. Present in which he described the similarities and differences found in the two eras.
(7)- Marco Polo
Marco Polo visited the court of Kublai Khan in China in the 13th century and provided awareness about the Chinese education system. He said in his observations that there is no fighting in Chinese schools, honesty and truth are emphasized, because of this education system, men and women live peacefully in China. On the contrary, in the nineteenth century, it was noted that the Chinese education system is responsible for the corrupt government system and lack of respect for the laws in China.
(8)- Ibne Khaldun
The renowned Muslim historian and intellectual Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), who was from Tunisia, compared Eastern Muslim culture with that of the West. He also emphasized the need to clarify the similarities and differences between the present and the past, and to understand their causes.
(9)- Jacob Middendorp
German scholar Jacob Middendrop was sent by the German government to collect detailed information about universities in France, Italy, Denmark, Poland and Bohemia.
(10)- Erasmus
Erasmus (1496-1536) was a Renaissance scholar who provided detailed information about education in various countries. He also compared the state of education in England and Italy at that time.
(11)- Montaigne
Montaigne (1533-1592) travelled from France to Germany, Italy and other European countries and expressed his impressions of the educational situation there.
(12)- William Petty
William Petty (1623-1687) was a professor of anatomy at Oxford University and a founder of the Royal Society. He gave a scholarly discussion of methods for studying the conditions of other countries in his book. He devised authoritative methods for land surveying.
(13)- Diderot and La Chalotais
Diderot and La Chalotais were from Russia and France, and both scholars have presented a comparative analysis of the education systems of Russia and France.
(14)- Condorcet
Condorcet was from France. He compared the French education system after the French Revolution with the systems of England, Italy and Germany and later presented his report to the National Assembly.
In the early periods of history, individuals who travelled to different regions compared different matters according to their own circumstances. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, long-distance travel became more common. In the sixteenth century, research on comparative education increased. In the seventeenth century, travel facilities and international connections increased and people traveling to other countries focused on various school activities. The cities that were established during this period also contributed to the research on comparative education.
(15)- Relevance of the early period to the present day
Like tourists of the past, journalists and tourists are performing this duty in the present era. Travellers’ reports are an unconventional way of learning about other societies. It is actually the first step towards understanding the educational systems of other countries. Eyewitness accounts are still considered valuable and helpful in research today.
ii. The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing: 1817-1900
Nineteenth-century Europe emerged from the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution and the colonial era. The social and political conditions of these revolutions and the public's reaction to them, led to educational reforms aimed at improving the school system. This necessitated borrowing the best ideas and educational practices available in different countries.
This period was motivated by two factors. The first factor was the efforts aimed at devising a system of methods and rules and regulations under which foreign educational systems could be studied. The second factor was the development of measures through which lessons could be learned from foreign systems so that their educational ideas could be utilized. As a result of these factors, tourists visited different countries and studied their educational systems. The prominent scholars who contributed to the development of comparative education during this period are as follows.
(1)- Victor Cousin
Victor Cousin (1792-1867) was living in France at a time when Europe was in turmoil after the Napoleonic Wars. He was a professor of philosophy and headmaster of a school. He visited Prussia and examined the educational system there. In 1813 he wrote a report recommending the use of the Prussian educational system.
(2)- Horrace Mann
Horace Mann (1796-1859) was an American who visited Prussia, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Holland and England and examined the role of history in comparative education. He suggested that many features of the Prussian educational system were useful to America, despite political and social differences.
(3)- Henry Barnard
Henry Barnard (1811-1900) was also from America and visited various European countries. He was also influenced by the Prussian education system. He published various books on foreign education systems and published many reports.
(4)- Mathew Arnold
Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) was from England. After visiting various countries in Europe, he recommended vastness in educational activities. In this regard, he said that positive benefits should be gained from the experiences of France and other countries.
(5)- K.D. Ushinsky
K. D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) was a Russian scholar who studied various educational reforms in Europe and tried to introduce most of them into Russian schools. He also visited various countries and examined the educational systems there.
(6)- Marc Antoine Jullian De Paris
Marc-Antoine Julien de Paris (1775-1848) was an ambassador for the French and Napoleonic governments. He examined the problems arising from the Napoleonic wars. According to him, the solution to these problems was education. He made a comprehensive plan for the study of foreign educational systems and played an important role in the promotion of comparative education.
After the Industrial Revolution, colonialism and the missionary Movement began, and thus imperialist countries introduced their own education systems in their colonies. These countries were influenced by Julian's work.
(7)- Relevance of the era of borrowing the education system to the present era
In the era of borrowing from the educational system, research was mainly benevolent and utilitarian. Even in the present era, explanatory studies are considered valuable and appropriate. In addition, all stakeholders related to education are trying to make education beneficial so it is also utilitarian. In today's era, people try to benefit from their educational experiences by visiting other countries.
(iii)- The Period of Philosophers: 1900-1945
This period is also called the period of cultural analysis. Many scholars expressed reservations about the study of education, after which, during the period of philosophers, comparative education shifted from descriptive to analytical. According to the experts of this period, it is not enough to collect information about the educational systems prevalent in different countries and adopt their systems as they are, but after observing foreign educational experiences, it is necessary to analyze whether foreign educational measures can be applied in the country or not.
The shift from a descriptive or uncritical approach to an analytical approach is the main characteristic of this period. This period saw a major trend towards analytical study of the relationship between education and society. This not only involved borrowing educational systems from abroad but also discussed the possibilities of success of this system in the country in a cultural context. The prominent scholars who contributed to the development of comparative education during this period are as follows:
(1)- Michael Saddler
Michael Sadler (1886-1943) was from England. According to him, while studying foreign education systems, we should not forget that the environment outside the school is more important than the environment inside the school. Often, external issues dominate the internal issues of the school. Sadler said that education and society are closely related and schools should be studied in the context of society. The comparison should not be only of statistics but should also take into account social, political, economic and other aspects. He emphasizes paying special attention in the training process to those things that are important in terms of national character.
(2)- William Torrey Harris
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) was an American who stressed the need for caution in using data from foreign educational systems. He argued that each state puts its own stamp on its educational system, so it is not easy to simply borrow the educational system of another country, as the system that works in a particular social environment may not be suitable for another.
(3)- Isaac Kandel
Isaac Kendall (1881-1965) taught at Teachers College, Columbia University, USA. He wrote a book called Studies in Comparative Education, which is considered a textbook on comparative education. According to him, every country has a character that is the result of its history and philosophy. The character of the school cannot be understood without the national character. In addition, it is not possible to understand the school apart from society, so he does not believe in borrowing systems.
(4)- Nicholas Hans
Nicholas Hans (1811-1900) taught at King's College, University of London. His book on comparative education is also taught as a textbook.
During this period of cultural convergence, where individual experts contributed to the development of comparative education, national and international agencies were also established. For example, the International Bureau of Education was established in Geneva in 1925.
The aim was to find solutions to educational problems and disseminate educational data globally.
(5)- Relevance of the cultural era to the present day
This period emphasizes understanding the features of education systems that give concrete form to these educational systems. This process helps to clarify the similarities and differences between different education systems, thus establishing a connection between this period and the present era.
(iv)- The Phase of Social Science Perspective: 1945 to Present
This era of comparative education studies began after World War II and brought forth a completely new scenario. There are two important aspects of this era. First, several influential national and international agencies were established for educational research, planning and program implementation. The role of comparative education experts increased due to their involvement in international projects. Second, the process of teaching comparative education as a regular subject in colleges and universities accelerated, in addition to the establishment of research centers in comparative education. This marked the beginning of a shift from a theoretical approach to a social science approach.
During this period, the tendency to analyze historical factors decreased and more emphasis was placed on analyzing the modern problems facing society and the relationship between education. The method of analysis shifted from the historical method to the experimental and quantitative method and the techniques adopted in subjects such as sociology, economics, philosophy and political science were adopted. With the emergence of a new world order in the world, a new generation of researchers emerged. Sociologists, economists and philosophers also came to the field of comparative education and they adopted the research techniques of their respective subjects in this field, thus realizing the need for an interdisciplinary approach to research. Social science researchers, together with comparative education experts, analyzed common problems and found solutions to them. The prominent experts of this period are as follows.
(1) Vernon Mallinson
Vernon Mallinson was a British scholar who used the concept of national character to explain the similarities and differences in different education systems. In 1957, he published his book National Character, in which he explained the concept of national character as somehow determining the type of education system a country has. In his other papers, he described various aspects of the education systems of France, Belgium, Germany, Denmark and Italy.
(2) Joseph A. Lauwerys
Joseph A. Lauwerys was Professor of Comparative Education at the Institute of Education, University of London and is instrumental in maintaining the World Yearbook of Education in collaboration with Columbia University. He emphasized on publishing reliable data collection to facilitate comparison in education.
(3) George Z F Beredy
George Beredy was a professor of comparative education at Teachers College, Columbia University and edited various journals on education. He wrote a book titled "Comparative Methods in Education" in 1964, which is known for its systematic Sandys approach to comparative education.
(4)Brian Holmes
Brian Holmes was a professor of comparative education who worked with Heinz and Joseph Lauwerys at the University of London and played a major role in research on comparative education. He introduced the problem-solving approach.
(5)- Edmond J. King
Edmund King was a professor of education at King's College, University of London. He wrote several books on comparative education. In his writings, Edmund King distinguished between teaching materials suitable for beginners, intermediate and research students in comparative education.
(6)Harold Noah
Harold Noah was from Columbia University in New York. Harold and Max Eckstein advocated methods of comparative education that were characterized by systematic control and experimentation.
During this period, international, regional and national agencies such as the International Bureau of Education, UNESCO and UNICEF also played an important role in the promotion of comparative education. These agencies also contributed to the collection of data, the completion of various surveys and projects, in addition to which several education societies were established in the field of comparative education.
(7) Characteristics of the Social Science Perspective Era
i- During this era, a flood of knowledge came and the challenge of spreading it around the world arose, creating a need for teachers to adopt new rules.
ii-The desire to acquire knowledge arose in all developed and developing countries.
iii-The desire for independence arose through movements in various colonies. Education played a central role in this struggle. There was a need to educate the public for political, economic, cultural and religious freedom.
iv- The rapid increase in the population of cities and the development of industries had a profound impact on education.
V- The enormous increase in population created new problems.
vi- Awareness of quality education grew and the need for education that was relevant to life and could meet the needs of individuals and society began to be felt.
vii- Comparative education gained momentum as an academic discipline.
viii- After World War II, the centers of power shifted, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as new world powers, communism and capitalism gained centrality and the world was divided into two. This division had a profound impact on the national education system.
IX- America gained a central position in world politics and the American presence became essential for understanding the educational systems and cultures of other countries.
X-After the collapse of the Soviet Union in the mid-1980s, the United States emerged as the sole superpower. The United States assumed a leadership position in the New World Order, while the IMF and the World Bank emerged as its deputies, their policies having a profound impact on education worldwide.
xi- During the Cold War, there was a lot of focus on the development of science and technology, especially after the development of the space program in Russia, huge amounts of money were spent on scientific education and research. Funding for the promotion of education also increased in third world countries.
xii- A new change occurred in the methodology of comparative education and researchers began to discuss the topic.
xiii- Currently, comparative education is being taught at undergraduate and graduate levels in many universities and various journals and magazines are also being published on this subject.
8- Relevance of the era of social science perspective to the present era
During this period, the process of providing information and data regarding education accelerated, in addition to suggestions for peacebuilding through education. Comparative education experts were inspired to work in different education systems and international organizations and they also gave suggestions for educational reforms.
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